The Reasoning Process And Scientific Method

Directional And Non-Directional Hypotheses.

• Senses provide the input data to the reasoning process. Without sensory input, it would be impossible to use reason because there would be no data to reason about.
• Since reason can never be separated from sensory input, then there is no meaningful such thing as “pure reason”.
• Although the senses can bring invalid data (e.g. they are manipulated by a hallucinogen, the limits of using light for vision), this is not a problem as long as the mind can use reason to correct the sensory input errors.
• Fallibilism: The principle that propositions concerning empirical knowledge can be accepted even though they cannot be proved with certainty.

Note: We have to establish reasoning first before we can later proclaim that the senses are the input for the reasoning process.¹

Pre-Reading: The Nature of Concepts.

When false concepts are formed, this either occurs when sensory knowledge is gained through invalid means like emotion or faith, through intellectual dishonesty (rationalizing instead of reasoning), or due to the nature of being a subject with limited knowledge and sensory experience of reality. When the latter happens, the resulting reasoning, ideas, actions can be considered rational since they follow the reasoning process, even if the results are contrary to reality, since reason has the potential to be wrong.

A rational mind doesn’t merely recognize facts, it knows which facts are relevant.

• The assertion of premises in an argument is the assertion of propositions that the arguer believes to be true, according to their model of experience.
• Although emotions and instincts can also count as knowledge in their appropriate contexts, they can only establish true propositions.
• Reason is different from emotions and instincts because reason also includes the logic step, which is when logical operations are performed to connect propositions together and form new propositions (conclusions) that are true if all the premises are true.
• Hence, any propositions generated by emotions and instincts would be included in Step #3 of the reasoning process, following Step #2 concept formation and before Step #4 logic.

See: Properties of Premises for more details on premises.

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Implicit / suppressed premises are premises that aren’t explicitly stated since they are obviously understood. If we could only choose between keeping premises implicit or making them explicit, it is better to make them explicit, especially if they would reveal invalid premises or contradictions.

It is beneficial to keep premises implicit when four conditions are satisfied:

1. The premises are already obvious to begin with, and
2. The premises can be verified using sound arguments, and
3. Making the premises explicit would make the argument harder to follow, and
4. The argument would remain valid even if the premises were made explicit.

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The reason why assertion of premises is a separate step from concept formation are that:

1. Premises can be real or hypothetical,
2. Stating premises should be the first step of making an argument,
3. Implicit premises should be stated explicitly,
4. Not all the concepts that one knows will be used in an argument, so stating the concepts that are relevant to an argument as premises helps other people understand arguments more clearly.

Logic is a presupposition of human thought. It is built into how we think, although people can make mistakes. As a formal system, it’s something we created by induction from observations of thought and argumentation.

Rationality is more than just the absence of contradiction. It is conformance to norms of judgment/decision-making.

Although the Logic step of the Reasoning Process is being listed here as following the Assertion of Premises step, there is usually a lot of back and forth between these two steps because conclusions made from prior logic can be used as premises for later arguments.

The Frame Problem

See: Wikipedia: Logical Reasoning Methods And Argumentation.

See: Wikipedia: Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning.

Figure 1: Argument Terminology Used In Logic (en), CC BY-SA 4.0, by Nyq.

• Gathering and connecting pertinent (relevant) information.
• Recognizing problems, and finding workable means for solving those problems.
• Habitually figuring out the best way to do/learn/use something before doing that action.
• Habitually starting with the basics and definitions before moving forward on a topic.
  • This is especially important because if the knowledge is wrong, then so is everything based upon it.
• Understanding the relevant methods, techniques, and criteria for making judgments.
• Understanding the reasoning process, its limits, and how it can be wrong.
• Understanding formal logic and inference rules.
• Understanding fallacies and how to avoid making them.
• Being able to transfer intuition (subconscious reasoning) into conscious thinking.
• Knowing how to form warranted conclusions, valid arguments, and sound arguments.
• Testing the conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives.
• Distinguishing between ’rational’ and ’rationalized’, AKA the “reason” versus “justification” dichotomy.
• Using and comprehending language with accuracy, clarity, and discernment.

In sum, Critical Thinking is “a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports or refutes it and the further conclusions to which it tends.” -Edward Glaser (1941)

Note: These are situations where not saying the mantras would cause the person thinking/saying the mantras to be less likely to use the reasoning skill associated with that mantra.

• Use reason.
• Why am I feeling this way?
• What is causing me to feel this way?
• What am I subconsciously noticing?
• What is leading me to speculate this?

The phrase “Use reason” for invoking the inclination to use reason to solve a problem might be considered a case where the habitual use of a mantra improves the brain’s intelligence by elevating its ability to solve problems (in this case by habitually reminding it to do something that it otherwise wouldn’t do)

Other similar cases that might not exactly count as mantras since their wordings can vary might be: “Why am I thinking this?” or “Why is mind noticing this conspicuous instance X?”